Life in Cloisters

Principles and Positions

The existence of an organization is predicated on well-defined rules and regulations. Otherwise its members are like sheep without a shepherd, and the organization itself has no hope of long-term survival. This is true of the monks’ organization in a temple. The Buddhist term sangha means the assembly of at least three monks, one of whom is the leader empowered to hear confessions, grant absolution, and ordain. The principles for the sangha are known as the “Six Points of Reverent Harmony” that demand strict observation and tolerate no violation. These six points are: 1) bodily unity in the form of worship, without fighting; 2) oral unity in chanting, mental unity in faith, and refraining from quarrels; 3) mental unity in faith, and the sharing of happiness; 4) moral unity in observing the commandments and self-cultivation; 5) doctrinal unity in views and explanations; 6) and economic unity in community of goods, deeds, studies, or charity.

The Six Points of Reverent Harmony were laid down during the time of Sakyamuni some 2,500 years ago, and they have been in force since Buddhism spread to China during the Han Dynasty. But, given China’s different conditions and customs and habits, these six points are not enough to keep a monastery in order, and that is why in a Chinese monastery specific positions are instituted to supervise every aspect of life in the cloisters.

The abbot is the master of a Chinese monastery. Under him there are four supervisors and eight executives who preside over the practice of self-cultivation and conduct of the monks and take care of daily life according to a division of labor. The four supervisors are the sthavira (the superintendent), the supervisor of the western chamber, the supervisor of the rear chamber, and the supervisor at large, and their task is to provide leadership over the search for Buddhist truth and the chanting of incantations in the prayer hall. These four positions are filled by monks of high accomplishment and are appointed by the abbot.

The eight executives are professional managers of various affairs in the monastery. They are:

1) Jianyuan: popularly known as the homemaker, who handles general affairs, and controls the financial affairs in particular.

2) Zhike: in charge of the reception room and receiving visiting monks and laity.

3) Sengzhi: supervising the enforcement of monastic rules and regulations, and the deportment of monks.

4) Weina: supervising the meditation hall, and providing leadership over daily religious rituals.

5) Dianzuo: managing the kitchen and the canteen, and taking care of meals for the entire monastery.

6) Liaoyuan: taking care of the Hall for Roaming Monks, and receiving wandering monks who stay in it.

7) Yibo: taking care of the abbot’s mansion, assisting the abbot in running the mansion and handling personnel affairs.

8) Shuji: secretary in charge of drafting and writing documents concerning public relations.

These eight executives are appointed by the abbot for a term of one year. Where and when necessary, assistants are appointed to serve as accountants, warehouse managers, alms collectors, doormen, vegetable garden managers, water fetching foremen, bell tolling managers, drum beaters, men who burn incense sticks and light lamps, managers of wandering monks, meal dispensers, etc. Thus life in a monastery progresses smoothly with the coordination of supervisors, executives, and their assistants. In some monasteries there is also the position of a general executive, but this is actually an honorary title, and the holder of it is not required to do anything.

For a time different sects had different hierarchies in Chinese Buddhism, but after the Song Dynasty, the influence of the Chan sect became so dominant that its arrangement was copied by the other sects.

Commandments and Prohibitions

The Commandments were prescribed by the Buddha, and followers are required to obey them unconditionally. According to historical records, there were no such commandments during the first 12 years after Sakyamuni achieved Buddhahood, and members of the sangha followed no rules of conduct. Some monks were thus carried away by their impulses and scandalized society by doing things that were improper to their status. To safeguard the honor of the sangha and appease public feelings, the Buddha began to formulate the commandments. But he did not finish the task in one stage. Rather, he laid down each commandment whenever a misdeed was committed. The commandments accumulated in this fashion until they formed a complete body. Each commandment had a reason behind it. For details, refer to the “complete collection of monastic rules” in the Tripitaka.

The commandments fall into two categories: commandments for those who have renounced the world and commandments for those who have not. Lay Buddhists are required to abide by the Five Commandments (Pancasila in Sanskrit: no killing, no stealing, no adultery, telling no lies, and abstention from liquors) or Eight Commandments (Not to kill; not to take things other than given; abstention from ignoble sexual conduct; not to speak falsely; not to indulge in cosmetics; not to indulge in personal adornments, dancing or music; not to sleep in fine beds; and not to eat out of right hours), while a mendicant is required observe 250 commandments and a nun, 500 commandments. The commandments are the rules of conduct governing the body, language, and will of a Buddhist. Accordingly, monks in a monastery are required to congregate on the 15th and 30th of each lunar month to chant the commandments. Such congregations serve two purposes. One is to remind the monks of the commandments, and the other gives an opportunity for malfeasants to make confessions. A monk who refuses to confess is held guilty, and if his misconduct has been exposed, he will be given a good talking to or, if the case is serious, expelled. The fortnightly recitation of the commandments is known as upavasatha (retreat for spiritual refreshment). Today, upavasatha is not held in the monasteries of most sects, but remains a compulsory formality in the Vinaya sect.

Commandments hold an important position in Buddhism. They are the foremost of the trisiksa, or three studies (learning by the commandments, or prohibitions, so as to guard against the evil consequences of error by mouth, body, or mind, in other words, word, deed, or thought; by dhyana, or quietist meditation; and by philosophy, i.e., study of principles and solving of doubts). A monk who refuses to abide by them can accomplish nothing no matter how hard he tries self-cultivation. Only by strictly observing them can a monk proceed to study by dhyana and by philosophy. The Buddha’s purpose in laying down the commandments was to prevent misconduct and ward off evil, and to promote the accumulation of morality.

Apart from the commandments laid down by Sakyamuni, monks in China are also subject to a series of prohibitions set forth by the eminent monk Huaihai of the Tang Dynasty in light of Chinese customs and habits and on the basis of the 800 year practice of Chinese Buddhism after it spread to China during the Han Dynasty.

Huaihai (720-814) was a native of Changle in present-day Fuzhou. Surnamed Wang, he was tonsured and became a disciple of Huizhao at Xishan in Chaoyang and was ordained with the commandments by the monk Falang on Mount Hengshan. One day, while studying the Tripitaka in the Fucha Temple in Lujiang, Anhui Province, he got word that Mazu (also known as Daoyi, 709-788) was preaching Chan Buddhism in Jiangxi. He went all the way there to seek Mazu’s advice. After Mazu died, Huaihai settled on Baizhang Mountain in Fengxing, Jiangxi Province, where he built a temple to recruit followers and receive wandering monks. He did this because at the time, monks of the Chan sect did not have fixed residences and most of them were put up in temples belonging to the Vinaya sect. Though they were put up in separate courtyards in these temples, there were still many inconveniences to their practicing meditation on the Chan philosophy and preaching it. When the population in his temple grew to a considerable size, this gave rise to the need to enforce certain rules and regulations to maintain peace and order. Huaihai created the Rules of Conduct for the Chan Sect, known to posterity as the “Monastic Prohibitions.” The original version of the book is not extant, but judging from an introduction in Volume Six of the Quotations of Buddhists in the Jingde Reign of the Dynasty by Daoyuan, they were rather simple rules and regulations. A similar book appeared by the Song Dynasty, which confused monasteries across the land as to which version was the correct one. In 1335 (3rd year of the Yuantong reign, Yuan Dynasty), the court of Emperor Yuanshun ordered Dehui, the abbot of a monastery in the Baizhang Mountain in Jiangxi, to compile a new version. The book he compiled was none other than the Imperial-Mandated Monastic Prohibitions of the Baizhang Monastery, which was distributed among monks nationwide and has been in use ever since. The new version was far more comprehensive than Huaihai’s original, and reflected the progress society had made with the passage of time, but its spirit remained the same, that is, how to run the sangha and the monasteries well.

The emergence of the “Monastic Prohibitions” was, to a certain extent, a transformation of the commandments that were necessary to prevent the sangha from being detached from a society that provided the lifeblood for the existence of monasteries.

Economic Sources for Monasteries

Except for the tricivara, begging bowl and bedding (three habits, include sanghati 九至二十五条衣, uttarasanga 七条衣, and antaravasaka 五条衣. The bowl钵 is used for begging for food while on the road. The bedding具 is made of cloth about 80 cm in width, to be spread out to sit or lie on, and serves as a cushion for prostration during important religious rituals), a monk is not supposed to have other private possessions. The monastery, however, is allowed to own property to be shared by all the monks. “Egalitarianism in property and interests” is an organizational principle for the sangha.

In the past, land was a major source of revenue for the Buddhist monasteries. Monasteries lent their land to local farmers in return for annual rents to be used as upkeep and to provide for the monks. After the Land Reform in New China, the monasteries lost the land in their possession, and monks in rural areas were allotted the same amount of land as local farmers. As a matter of fact, monks had not tilled their own land for many centuries. During the Tang Dynasty, when the famed Chan monk Huaihai built the first Chan monastery, he attached equal importance to farming and Chan meditation, and his “Monastic Prohibitions” contained rules for monks to participate in farm labor. The rules, known as “Rules for Collective Labor,” required monks to share all the chores in the monastery. In his old age, Huaihai insisted on taking part in collective labor. One day, the monk in charge of collective labor, wanting Huaihai to take a rest on account of his advanced age, hid his farm tool. Huaihai could not find it, but he refused to take a rest. “I am an immoral man only if I shift my end of physical labor onto other people,” he said, adding that he would refuse to eat if he was not allowed to work. This story later evolved into the famed adage: “I’ll eat nothing the day I haven’t done any work.”

The financial sources for a monastery in China today are mainly as follows:

(1) Visitor tickets. Monasteries, no matter where they are, are always regarded as cultural facilities with much to see, and tickets are sold to visitors to earn the upkeep. As a matter of fact, tickets have become a major source of revenue for the monasteries. The earnings can be very impressive if a monastery is a big one or situated on a famous mountain.

(2) Almsgiving (dana). Since the advent of Buddhism, monks who renounced the world have lived on alms contributed by lay followers. Even today, lay Buddhists are in the habit of contributing money and materials to monasteries in the belief that this helps them accumulate virtue and attain the Buddha’s blessings.

(3) Morality-accumulation Box. In the Mahavira Hall of virtually all the monasteries there is a box that looks like a piggy bank, but much bigger. This is the morality-accumulation box, into which pilgrims and visitors toss whatever amount of money they wish as a token of their piety. The box can yield a substantial amount of earnings every year. In some monasteries the morality-accumulation box can be found in every hall.

(4) The “Circulation Department.” The “circulation department” turns out to be a small store selling Buddhist scriptures, statues, and other religious objects, as well as souvenirs. If run well, such a store can provide a good income.

(5) Vegetarian’s restaurant. For the convenience of pilgrims, patrons, and visitors, some temples run restaurants in which only vegetarian food is served. A well-run restaurant can earn a lot of money.

(6) Religious services. The Chinese who believe in Buddhism are in the habit of sending for monks to recite scriptures in order to seek the Buddha’s blessings. When someone has died in a family, they invite monks to come home to perform rituals to expiate the sins of the dead. These services are another major source of income for a monastery.

(7) Farming. In temples situated in rural areas, most monks earn a living by farming. The monks of the Guoqing Temple on Mount Tiantai, for instance, till the land while cultivating themselves in search of enlightenment. They run their farm so well that the crops yield a surplus on a yearly basis. Another source of income for this monastery is the woods on its premises.

(8) Government subsidy. Temples with a rich historical and cultural tradition are duly protected by the government, which finances major repairs and expansion projects.

With the above mentioned sources for collective income, each monastery is able to offer allowances to its monks according to their responsibilities and contributions. Even those who do not shoulder any responsibilities are entitled to an allowance.

Everyday Life in the Cloisters

Everyday life in a monastery is both physical and spiritual. As to the physical aspect, a monk needs to be fed and clothed. As to the spiritual aspect, he practices austerities in searching for the Buddhist truth, attending sutra-chanting sessions in the halls and studying the creeds. His daily routine in the cloisters consists of the following four aspects:

(1) Incantation-chanting sessions. The first thing a monk does after he gets up in the morning and washes his face and brushes his teeth is to go to the hall to chant incantations. Under normal conditions, he arises at five in the morning. After he has finished tidying himself up and putting on his habit, he will queue up with fellow monks, and then the karmadana (deacon) chaperons them all into the Mahavira Hall where the monks who live in the meditation rooms stand along the eastern wall and those who live in other dormitories stand along the western wall. With the deacon taking the lead, they sing hymns and chant incantations. All the while bells, drums, wooden-fish, and chimes are struck to mark the beats of the hymns and the rhythm of the chanting. Among these concussion instruments, the wooden fish has a special function to play: it serves to admonish those who have renounced the mundane world to follow the example of the fish, which never sleeps, and to be assiduous in seeking self-cultivation through meditation. The morning session in the Mahavira Hall finishes in about an hour’s time. The afternoon session, which begins at four, is the same as the morning session in terms of duration and rituals, but the incantations to be chanted are different.

(2) Mealtime ritual. A religious ritual is performed before a meal is served in the monastery. After the morning incantation-chanting session is dismissed, the monks who live in the meditation rooms are the first to evacuate the Mahavira Hall and return to their rooms. When a bell is tolled, they queue up again and file into the dining room to be seated in a prescribed order. The dining room is furnished with long tables and benches. Those whose task is to dispense the meals lay out the bowls and chopsticks and fill the bowls with food. After everybody is ready, the monks collectively say the prayer before setting their chopsticks to their bowl. Under the watchful eyes of those on duty, monks are not supposed to talk while they eat. After the meal is over, they chant a meal-ending invocation, file out of the dining room and return to their dormitories. The lunchtime ritual is more or less the same, but the food served is more generous. No rituals are held for supper. This practice has something to do with the commandment that monks should not eat anything after noontime, and because supper is not offered, there is no need for such rituals. However, in China monks are mostly followers of Mahayana Buddhism and generally do not observe this commandment. There being no such taboo for them, it is customary, therefore, for them to have supper. The commandment against eating after noontime is carried out strictly in Buddhist countries in Southeast Asia, where a monk is in for disgrace if he is found eating in the afternoon or at night. But why does the commandment forbid monks from eating supper? This is because monks are asked to curb greed, and to give up supper is one way to keep greed from rising in their hearts. It is thus advocated that “monks should often look three percent sick.”

(3) Self-cultivation. Self-cultivation in a monastery falls into two categories. In the Chan sect, monks meditate, while in the Pure Land sect they chant the Buddha’s name. The meditation room is where monks of the Chan sect attend such sessions. Each session begins by the clockwise circumambulation of a shrine in the room, and in this process the monks’ steps are gradually accelerated until they find themselves running at a fast pace. Incense sticks are burned to mark the time to be taken for the procession. While the monks are circumambulating the shrine, they are spurred on by a supervisor who stands by holding in his hand a wooden bar (The wooden bar is used to maintain order when monks of the Chan school are circumambulating the Buddha’s shrine or meditate in the meditation room. It is also an instrument of torture, used to spank those monks who have violated the commandments and prohibitions in a monastery.). After awhile, the run around the shrine is slowed down to a walk, and then the monks will stop and sit down on crossed legs to begin the next part of the session: meditation. In each meditation session the monks are asked to mull over a single question, such as “What was I like before my parents were born?” The supervisor holding the wooden-bar continues his patrol, and will pat the back of someone who’s found to be dozing off. After sitting there and meditating for some time, the monks are asked to relax and flex their muscles. The self-cultivation session is repeated three times a day in a monastery where order is strictly maintained.

In the Pure Land sect, self-cultivation in a monastery takes the form of chanting the Buddha’s name, but the rituals and time arrangement are more or less the same as in the Chan sect. The monks are also required to circumambulate the Buddha’s shrine in the hall in a clockwise fashion while chanting “Namah Amitabha” (南无阿弥陀佛: Used constantly in liturgy, incantations, etc, as the formula of faith of the Pure Land sect, representing the believing mind of all beings and Amitabha’s power and will to save; repeated in the hour of death, it opens the entrance to the Pure Land) in a smooth liturgy. After chanting the Buddha’s name for some time, the monks will sit down with crossed legs to meditate and ask themselves the question, “Who is the one who chants the Buddha’s name?” This ritual, which came into vogue when different sects of Chinese Buddhism began to mingle after the Song Dynasty, is known as “self-cultivation by meditation in the fashion of Chan and chanting the name of the Buddha in the fashion of the Pure Land.” But in some temples of the Pure Land sect the monks only chant the Buddha’s name and do not sit down to meditate.

(4) Sanitation work. Monks in China are fastidious about environmental sanitation and personal hygiene. As a temple covers a wide area, the workload to keep it clean and tidy is so heavy that it calls for the coordinated efforts of all the monks. The sanitation work in a monastery is routine, with no one to organize it, and nobody doing it out of someone else’s pressure.

Apart from these aspects of daily life in the cloisters, monks also arrange their own self-cultivation and study. In rural areas, they are required to till the land. Generally speaking, life in a temple is marked by serenity and regularity. Free from the worries of lay persons and busy traffic, and free of the mundane world, the monks are resigned to the leisure, peace, and quiet of monastic life, to the great envy of those who have had their fill of worldly trepidations.