Tibet

General Survey

Geographical Location

The Tibet Autonomous Region is situated in the southwestern border area of the People's Republic of China. Lying at 78°25'-99°06'E and 26°50'-36°53'N, it covers an area of more tha 1.22 square km, or one-eighth of China's land area. With a size equal to the total of the five countries including the Great Britain, France, Germany, the Netherland and Luxemburg, Tibet is second largest provincial-level area in China, next only to the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. It abuts the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province in the north, Sichuan Province in the east, and Yunnan Province in the southeast. It also has a 3,842 km border with the neighboring countries of Myanmar, India, Bhutan and Nepal as well as Kashmir in the south and west.

Administrative Division

As one of the five autonomous regions of the People's Republic of China, the Tibet Autonomous Region exercises jurisdiction over one city (Lhasa City), one district directly under the Lhasa city government (Chengguan District), six prefectures (Nagqu, Qamdo, Nyingchi, Shannan, Xigaze and Ngari prefectures), one county-level city (Xigaze City), and 71 counties.

Lhasa is the capital of the region. Xigaze is its second largest city. Other major cities and towns include Zetang Town, Bayi Town, Nagqu Town, Chengguan Town, Shiquanhe Town, Gyangze Town and Zam Town.

Lhasa City

Located in the central south part of Tibet, Lhasa City lies on the northern bank of the Lhasa River, a tributary of the Yarlung Zangbo River. Covering an area of 31,622 square km, the city is home to more than 30 ethnic groups including Tibetan, Han and Hui, of which Tibetans account for more than 87 percent of the total population. The city enjoys an average annual temperature of 7.5 degrees Centigrade, the January average being 2.3 degrees Centigrade and that in July 15.4 degrees Centigrade. It falls into the category of a highland monsoon climate. Its major grain crops include qingke barley, wheat and corn, while its economic crops include potatoes, turnips and cabbages. Its medicinal herbs include Chinese caterpillar fungus, caladium, rhodiola root, snow lotus, ginseng fruit, musk and pilose antler. Its wildlife includes wild yaks, wild donkeys, Mongolia gazelles and Tibetan antelopes. Its traditional handicrafts include waist knives, kardian cushions, carpets, bamdian aprons, wooden bowls, and gold and silver jewelries.

Lhasa has opened more than 200 scenic spots, including some 20 major ones, such as the Potala Palace, Jokhang Monastery, Ramoche Monastery, Norbu Lingka, Zhaibung Monastery, Sera Monastery, Zongjab Lukhang, Gandain Monastery, Curpu Monastery and Razheng Monastery. Its major sceneries include the Nam Co Lake, Yangbajain Geothermal Field, snow peaks of the Nyainqentanglha Mountains, hot springs at Dezong and Doilung, and nature reserves in Lhunzhub and Meizhukongka.

Nagqu Prefecture

Nagqu Prefecture lies in northern Tibet abutting Xinjiang and Qinghai. Its total area is 286,500 square km. More than 98 percent of its population is Tibetan and their main livelihood is livestock breeding.

The central and western parts of Nagqu belong to Changtang, lying at an average elevation of over 4,500 meters. Maintaining a primitive ecology, the prefecture is dotted with some 1,000 rippling lakes including Nam Co, Serling Co and Tangra Yumco, as well as many hot springs and geothermal fields. There are over 20 animal species subject to State first and second class protection. Major special products include oxen and sheep wool, Cashmere goat wool, caterpillar fungus, snow lotus flower, caladium and musk. Major scenic spots include the Shaten Monastery located in Nagqu County, Arza Lake and Drongyul Township Scenic Area in Jiali County, Nujiang River scenic area and Bomphan Primitive Forests in Biru County, as well as the Batang Monastery of the Bon religion, Lungkar and Lupug monasteries.

Qamdo Prefecture

Located in eastern Tibet, Qamdo Prefecture abuts Yunnan and Sichuan provinces to the east, and Qinghai Province to the north. The Sichuan-Tibet, Yunnan-Tibet, Qinghai-Qamdo and other trunk roads meet here. Covering an area of 130,000 square km, this prefecture is home to the Tibetan, Han, Mongolian, Naxi, Lili and Hui ethnic groups.

There are some 80 high peaks each with an elevation of over 5,000 meters in the prefecture. In the river valleys, forests and natural pastures live more than 600 species of wildlife such as snow leopards, pandas, Yunnan golden monkeys and white lipped deer. It is rich in some 1,200 kinds of medicinal herbs including caterpillar fungus, musk and young pilose antler.

Major scenic areas include Qambaling Monastery, Karu New Stone Age Ruins, Zugung County's Meili Snow Mountain, and Zaya County's cliff sculptures and Lunglung stone carvings.

Nyingchi Prefecture

Located in southeastern Tibet, Nyingchi Prefecture is on the middle and lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River. It abuts India and Myanmar to the south. Covering an area of 99,700 square km, it is home to the Tibetan and Han, as well as Moinba and Lhoba ethnic groups.

Under the impact of the warm air current from the Indian Ocean, Nyingchi Prefecture is free from unbearably hot weather in summer and freezing cold in winter. It is blessed with plentiful precipitation and humidity. Forests covering 2.64 million hectares teem with giant spruce trees some more than 200 years old, while the oldest cypress tree is 2,500 years old. Timber reserves exceed 800 million cubic meters. The number of known higher plants reaches some 2,000. The lowest elevation is about 1,000 meters. Some places in the prefecture are suitable for growing rice, oranges, bananas and lemon. Rare wildlife includes Bengal tigers, Yunnan golden monkeys, leopards, bears and antelopes. Native produce include tube of elevated gastrodia, pseudo ginseng, fritillaria, Hongjintian, Chinese caterpillar fungus, glossy ganoderma and other medicinal herbs, as well as more than 120 kinds of fungi. Nang County's Tibetan hats and wooden bowls, Bome's "Qomolangma tea", and Ye'ong Tibetan knives, Zayu's woven bamboo products and Tibetan wooden bowls are famous in China.

Nyingchi boasts eight scenic areas comprising 40 scenic spots. They include ones acknowledged as outstanding by world tourism organizations, 4A ones recommended by the China National Tourism Bureau, as well as the national forest park known as Basum Co Scenic Area. Others include the Nam-jiagbawa Scenic Area, Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon, Yi'ong Geological Park and Serchila State Forest Park.

Shannan Prefecture

Located on the middle and lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River, Shannan Prefecture abuts Bhutan and India to the south. Covering an area of some 80,000 square km, it is home to the Tibetan, Han, Hui, Moinba and Lhoba ethnic groups. Tibetans occupy 98 percent of the total population.

As one of the major cradles of the Tibetan race, Shannan has a long history. It has 10 cultural relic sites subject to national protection, including the Tombs of Tibetan Kings, Samye Monastery, Changzhub Monastery, Zhatang Monastery, Jidui Tubo Tombs Group, Leshan Tomb, Lhagyali Imperial Palace Ruins, Namserling Manor, Gyiru Lhakang, as well as holy mountains and holy lakes.

The Yarlung River State Class Scenic Area is the only one of its kind in China. It boasts snow-covered mountains, glaciers, pastures, unspoilt river valley, and places of historic interest. The prefecture has three tourist sites featuring scenic beauty and human interest, namely, Yamzhog Yumco Lake Scenic Area, Samye Scenic Area and Holy Lakes Scenic Area.

Native produces include pulu woven woolen fabrics, Tibetan joss sticks and kardian cushions.

Shannan Prefecture is an area with sound transport facilities. Lhasa Gonggar Airport is located in Gyizholing Town of the prefecture's Gonggar County.

Xigaze Prefecture

Located in central south part of Tibet, Xigaze Prefecture abuts Bhutan and Nepal. Covering an area of 180,000 square km, it is home mainly to Tibetans. Other ethnic groups found here include the Han, Hui, Mongolian, Naxi, plus Sherpa people.

The prefecture is home to many plateau pastures, fields, forests, and snow-covered peaks. The Qomolangma Nature Reserve boasts the world's highest most intact vertical eco-system. Major places of historical interest include Tashilhungpo Monastery, Sagya Monastery, ruins of the Zongshan Mountain Resisting the British Invaders Site, Xialhu Monastery, Deqoi Monastery, Zholma Lhakang and other cultural relics units, as well as the Natang Monastery, Rongbu Monastery, Palkor Monastery and the site of the former Parlha Manor.

Xigaze Prefecture is major area for the development of mountaineering in Tibet partly because it boasts five peaks each rising at least 8,000 meters above sea level: Qomolangma (8,844.43 meters), Lho Tse (8,516 meters), Makalu (8,463 meters), Cho Oyu (8,201meters) and Xixabangma (8,012 meters). In the past two decades or so, China has opened 44 high peaks and mountaineering routes. Foreign mountaineering teams climbing Qomolangma now number over 20 a year.

Native produce of the prefecture includes wooden bowls wrapped in silver, tea tray and frames, Tibetan carpets, golden thread hats, Tibetan knives and kardian cushions.

Ngari Prefecture

Located in western Tibet, Ngari Prefecture abuts Kashmir, India and Nepal to the south and west. With the border extending 116 km, the prefecture has over 60 mountain mouths leading to other parts of the world. Of the seven counties under its jurisdiction, three engage entirely in livestock breeding, and four in mixed farming and livestock breeding. It covers an area of 303,000 square km, with relatively low population density.

The prefecture holds an important place in China's cultural and economic exchanges with the west. It is home to ancient civilization of Zhangzhung and the Bon religion.

With an average elevation of 4,500 meters, the prefecture is full of scenic wonders including glaciers, extensive plateau plant coverage, Gobi desert, rippling rivers and lakes, green fields, clay forests, and wildlife. Its Shiqianhe River, Kongquehe River, Xiangquanhe River and Maquanhe River are respectively sources of the Indus, Ganges, Sutlej and Yarlung Zangbo Rivers. It is also home to the sites of many ancient civilizations such as the ruins of Guge Kingdom, Toding Monastery, Donggar Frescos and Ritog Cliff Paintings. In Burang County is the holy mountain of Kangrenboqe, the chief peak of Kangdese Mountains, and the holy lake Mapang Yumco. Both hold an important place in Asian religious history. Ngari Prefecture also has five world-class tourist sites, 18 State class ones, 48 regional level ones. Tourism has grown into a major contributor to local economic growth.

Topography

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was the latest to emerge on earth, but it is the largest in size and the highest in elevation, hence its name as "Roof of the World" or the "Third Pole of the Earth".

Descending from northwest to southeast, the plateau is full of with gullies, glaciers, rocks and Gobi. Under the impact of topography and atmospheric currents, Tibet's climate is varied and diversified. Generally speaking, the climate features frigid and dry air in the northwest and warm and humid air in the southeast. The climatic types from southeast to northwest include tropical, subtropical, plateau temperate, plateau sub-frigid and plateau frigid zones. And the climate undergoes a vertical change from tropical and sub-tropical to temperate, frigid temperate and frigid zones. There is a local saying that "there are four seasons within one mountain" and the "weather changes in a 5-km area" reflecting the diversity.

Himalayan Mountainous Area: Lying in southern Tibet, it is formed by several east-west mountains each with an elevation of 6,000 meters, including the Qomolangma which, located in Tingri County by the China-Nepal border and having an elevation of 8,843.43 meters, is the highest peak in the world. The Himalaya is capped by snow all the year round and climate in its southern and northern side, plus topography, is totally different. Southern Tibet Valley: Lying between the Kangdese and Himalayan mountains, the valley is drained by the Yarlung Zangbo River and its tributaries. This valley is composed of many small sub river and lake valleys. Blessed with flat land and fertile fields, this valley is the major agricultural area of Tibet.

Northern Tibet Plateau: Lying amng the Kunlun, Tanggula, Kangdese and Nyainqentanggula mountains, the plateau occupies two-third of the regional area. Dotted with many basins, this plateau is the major livestock breeding area of Tibet.

Eastern Tibet High Mountain Valley: This refers to the Henduan mountainous area located east of Nagqu. It is composed of a series of east-west and then south-north high mountains and deep ravines. The Nujiang, Lancangjiang and Jinshajiang rivers flow among these mountains. While the top of the mountains are buried under snow, the area on the lower part of the mountain slopes are covwered with trees and crops.

Climate

Exposed to topography and terrain unique to Tibet and air currents, the climate in Tibet is complicated and diversified. Overall, the Tibetan climate features frigid and dry air in the northwest and warm and humid in the southeast, forming climatic zones (southeast-northwest) such as the tropical, subtropical, plateau temperate, and plateau sub-frigid climatic zones. Giving rising elevation, the southeastern Tibet and the southern slope of the Himalayas see lowering temperature, with the temperature pattern featuring changes of going from tropical/sub-tropical to temperate, cold temperate and cold temperate.

With the rise in elevation, reduced air pressure and density, the oxygen content per-cubic meter of air correspondingly declines. At an elevation of 3,000 meters, the oxygen content is already only 73 percent of that at sea level, declining to 62-65.4 percent at 4,000 meters, 59 percent at 5,000 meters and 52 percent at 6,000 meters.

Dominated alternatively by westerly wind in winter and southwesterly wind in summer, Tibet has a clear distinction between dry and wet days. Generally speaking, the months from October to April are a dry season while the months from May to September are a wet season, with precipitation during the period accounts for some 90 percent of the annual total. Rainfall is unevenly distributed in different places of Tibet, with a remarkable demarcation line between dry and rainy seasons. Annual precipitation amounts to 5,000 mm in the low-lying area in the southeastern part, dropping to 50 mm in the northwest.

There exists great difference in climate between southern and northern Tibet. Under the impact of warm humid air currents from the Indian Ocean, the valleys in southern Tibet enjoy warm and wet weather, with the annual average temperature fluctuating between 8-16 degrees Centigrade at the height of summer and -16 degrees Centigrade in the depths of winter. The northern Tibet Plateau enjoys a continental climate, with the annual temperature staying above zero. However, the icing period extends over the bulk of the year. The "hottest" month is July when the average temperature is only 10 degrees Centigrade, however. The period of June-August features warm weather but more rain at night. Spring is windy. March-October is the ideal season for visits and June-September the best season of all. Receant years see the rise in the number of domestic and overseas people who visit Tibet in winter.

Tibet boasts more solar radiation than any other part of China, about 100 percent or one-third more than in plains at the same latitude. In addition, Tibet enjoys longer duration of sunshine, reaching 3,021 hours annually in Lhasa. However, it is 1,186.84 hours in Chengdu and 1,932.5 hours in Shanghai. The difference in temperature between day and night is enormous in Tibet; however, so far as the whole year is concerned, the seasonal difference is small. Both the annual average temperature and the highest temperature in Lhasa and Xigaze are 10-15 degrees Centigrade lower than in Chongqing, Wuhan and Shanghai, which lie on a closer latitude. The seasonal difference in temperature in Lhasa, Qamdo and Xigaze is 18-20 degrees Centigrade. In the Ngari area, some 5,000 meters above sea level, the temperature in August reaches 10 degrees Centigrade or higher during the day, but falls to below zero at night.

Mountains

On northern Tibet plateau lie the Kunlunshan Mountains and the branch Tanggula Mountain. In southern Tibet, there are the Henduan Mountains. The Kangdese-Nyainqentanglha Mountains bisect Tibet from east to west. Mountains in the region reach an average elevation of over 4,000 meters. But there are 50 peaks each with an elevation of over 7,000 meters and five each rising above 8,000 meters.

Mountains in the plateau basically extend either from east to west or from south to north. Major ones are as the follows:

Himalayan Mountains: Zigzagging through the southern part of the Tibetan Plateau, the Himalayas, the highest and the youngest mountains in the world, comprise many parallel mountains running from east to west. The major part of the Himalayas lies on the border between China and India, and between China and Nepal. Extending some 2,400 km, it is 200-300 km wide. Major peaks have an average elevation of over 6,200 meters. They include the world's highest peak Qomolangma, rising 8,844.43 meters above sea level, towers over surrounding peaks on the Sino-Nepalese border. In this part of the world there are 42 peaks each with an elevation of over 7,000 meters, including four each with an elevation of over 8,000 meters.

Kunlunshan Mountains: Kunlunshan runs west-east on the northwestern fringe of the Tibetan Plateau, with an average elevation of 5,500-6,000 meters. It is one of the places perennially covered under snow and with modern glaciers. Muztag, rising 6,973 meters above sea level, is the highest peak in the area.

Karakorum-Tanggula Mountains: The major part of the Karakorum Mountains lies on the border between Xinjiang and Kashmir. Running eastward, it forms the Tanggula Mountains at 90°E, marking the border between Tibet and Qinghai. Galadandong is its highest peak. Rising 6,621 meters above sea level, it is the source of the Yangtze River, the longest river in China.

Kangdese-Nyainqentanglha Mountains: Lying at the southern edge of the Northern Tibet Plateau, the mountains serve as the border between north and south and southeast Tibet, and the demarcation line for rivers that flow within and out of the region. Kangrinboqe, with an elevation of 6,656 meters, is the main peak of the Kangdese Mountains; and Nyainqentanglha, rising 7,162 meters above sea level, is the highest peak of the Nyainqentanglha Mountains.

Hengduanshan Mountains: Hengduanshan is a combination of several parallel mountains with deep river valleys between them. These mountains from west to east include Bexoi La, Tanian-taweng and Markam mountains. Having an average elevation of 4,000-5,000 meters, they are extensions of the Nyainqentanglha Mountains and Tanggula Mountains.

Rivers

The huge mountains on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau have bred modern glaciers. Melted ice become the source of many well known rivers in Asia. In Tibet there are more than 20 rivers each with a drainage area of more than 10,000 square km, and over 100 each with a drainage area of more than 2,000 square km. The region has rivers known in the worlde including the Yarlung Zangbo River and its five tributaries such as the Lhasa, Nyang Qu, Nyang, Parlung Zangbo and Dorxung Zangbo. It has the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and the Langcangjiang (its lower reaches called Mekong River), as well as the source of the Nujiang River (its lower reaches called Salween River), plus the Sangge Zangbo (also know as Siquanhe River whose lower reaches is the Hindus River) and Langqen Zangbo River (also known as Xianquanhe River whose lower reaches is the Sutlej River.

Some of the rivers in Tibet flow into the sea while the others are just inland waters. The most important rivers are the Yarlung Zangbo, Jinshajiang, Lancangjiang, Pum Qu, Langqen Zangbo and Sengge Zangbo. The average annual runoff stands at 448.2 billion cubic meters. Most of the rivers that ultimately empty into the Pacific Ocean or the Indian Ocean are distributed in the border areas of east, south and west Tibet. The inland rivers are mainly distributed on the Northern Tibetan Plateau. Snows on high mountains are headwaters of these rivers, which are usually short and developed surrounding an endorheic lake. Most of them are seasonal waters. Their lower reaches either disappear in the wildness or accumulated into a lake at lower land.

Yarlung Zangbo. Seen as "Mother River" by Tibetans, it is the largest river in the Tibet Autonomous Region. Originating in the Gyima Yangzong Glacier (5,500 meters above sea level) in Zhongba County at the northern foot of the Himalayas, it runs through 23 counties of Xigaze, Lhasa, Shannan and Nyingchi. After leaving Medog County, it becomes Brahmaputra River which empties into the Indian Ocean when passing through India and Bangladesh. The Yarlung Zangbo River runs 2,057 km in China (ranking fifth in China in terms of length), draining an area of 240,000 square km (sixth in China). With the drainage area having an average elevation of 4,500 meters, the Yarlung Zangbo is the highest river in the world. About 1 million people, or 37 percent of Tibet's total population, live in the area drained by the Yarlung Zangbo River, where cultivated land amounts to over 150,000 hectares, or 41.67 percent of the region's total. The area is also home to some major cities and towns, including Lhasa, Xigaze, Gyangze, Zetang and Bayi.

Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon. The Yarlung Zangbo River cleaves a straight niche from west to east before reaching the juncture of Mainling and Medog counties, where it swerves around towering Namjagbarwa (7,782 meters), the highest peak in the eastern section of the Himalayas, creating the largest, U-shaped canyon in the world. In 1994, some Chinese scientists made an expedition trip along the canyon. Data published by the State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping following the expedition shows that the canyon starts from the Daduka Village, Mainling County in the north to Parcoka Village, Medog in the south. Stretching 504.6 km, the canyon is 2,268 meters deep on average, with the deepest point being 6,009 meters. The Colorado Canyon in the United States is 440 km in length while the Colca Canyon in Peru is 3,203 meters deep. In September 1998, the State Council officially approved the name of the canyon as "Yarlung Zangbo Daxiagu" (Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon).

Lakes

Tibet boasts the largest number of lakes in China. There are some 1,500 lakes covering a total area of 23,800 square km, about 30 percent of the nation's total lake area. They include the Nam Co, Serling Co and Zhari Nam Co, each covering an area of over 1,000 square km; 47 lakes each covering more than 100 square km; and 787 others each covering more than one square km. The lakes in Tibet can also be divided into following categories: exorheic, endorheic and inland in-take lakes according to water systems; freshwater, salty water and salt lakes according to chemical division; and structural, glacier lakes formed as a result of glacier activity and barrier lakes formed after mud-rock flows and landslides blocked the river course. There are many salt lakes in Tibet, a rough calculation showing about 251 of them covering a total area of 8,000 square km; surrounding these salt lakes are pastures that are home to rare wildlife.

Most of the lakes in Tibet assume blue cover and are crystal clear. Large ones are complete with islets, home to many birds. The bird islet in Banggong Co Lake in western Ngari is the most famous.

Famous lakes in Tibet include the Nam Co, Basum Co, Yamzhog Yumco, Sengli Co, Mapang Yumco and Banggong Co lakes.

Nam Co Lake. The largest lake in Tibet, it is situated between Damxung County of Lhasa, the capital city of the Tibet Autonomous Region, and Bangoin County of Nagqu Prefecture. It is the second largest salt lake in China.

Basum Co Lake. Located in Gongbogyangda County, the lake, also called Co Gor, was listed as a "world tourist attraction" in 1997, rated as a State 4A tourist area in 2001, and listed as a State forest park in 2002.

Yumzhog Yumco Lake. As the largest inland lake in the northern Himalayas, it is also the largest habitat for migratory birds in southern Tibet. The Yumzhog Yumco Pump-Storage Power Station built by the lake is the highest of its kind in the world. Its power station, with a fall of 800-odd meters, is complete with a water pumping channel extending close to 6,000 meters, and four hydroelectric generating units with a combined capacity of 90,000 kW. It is located 110 km from Lhasa City.

Sengli Co Lake. It is the number one lake in the world in terms of ele-vation. Located in Zongba County's Lunggar Town-ship, it has an elevation of 5,386 meters. The water surface covers 92 square km. There are close to 1,000 lakes each at an elevation over 4,000 meters in Tibet. They include 17 above 5,000 meters, of which Sengli Co is the highest.

Mapang Yumco Lake. Located some 200 km from Shiquanhe Town in Burang County, this is the highest freshwater lake in the world. With blue, crystal clear water, it is known as a holy lake together with Kangrenboqe.

Banggong Co Lake. Located north of Ritog County seat, the bulk of the lake is located within Chinese territory, with a small part in Kashmir.

In Tibet, most of the lakes are tinged with religious meaning. Nam Co, Mapang Yumco and Yamzhog Yumco are mentioned as the three major holy lakes. In addition, the region boasts Lhamo Lha Co Lake which enjoys a special place in the Living Buddha reincarnation system of Tibetan Buddhism, Dangro Yumco which is the soul lake of Living Buddha Razheng, and Cona Lake.

Natural Resources

Land

Tibet has abundant land resources. Of its total area of 1.22 million square km, 650,000 hectares are pastureland and 360,000 hectares are cultivated land. Most of the cultivated land is distributed in the southern Tibetan river valleys and basins, while the remaining small portions are scattered in the east and southeast of the region. A large proportion of land, or some 30.71 percent of the total, is yet to be utilized. As the largest grasslands, Tibet leads Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang in terms of the area of natural grasslands.

Plants

Tibet is richly endowed with plant resources, with more than 9,600 species of wild plants, and 6,400 species of higher plants. They include 39 species which are subject to national protection. Gyirong, Yadong and Zhentang in southwest Tibet and Medog, Zayu and Lhoyu in southeast Tibet are known as museums of rare plants. Even in north Tibet, with its extreme natural conditions, there are more than 100 species of plants.

Forest coverage rate averages 9.84 percent in Tibet. Common tree species include Himalayan pine, alpine larch, Pinus yunnanensis, Pinus armandis, Himalayan spruce, Himalayan fir, hard-stemmed long bract fir, hemlock, Monterey Larix potaniniis, Tibetan larch, Tibetan cypress and Chinese juniper. The coniferous forests composed of spruce, fir and hemlock have the widest distribution, mainly in the humid subalpine belts of the Himalayas, Nyainqentanglha and Hengduanshan mountain ranges. They account for 48 percent of the total forest area in Tibet, with their reserves making up 61 percent of the total. Pine forests cover about 926,000 hectares in Tibet. The Tibetan longleaf pine and lacebark pine are the species peculiar to the region, thus being put under the state-level protection.

As one of the five largest pastoral areas in China, Tibet boasts 82.66 million hectares of grassland. The bulk of Nagqu and eastern Ngari constitute major part of Tibetan grasslands, totaling some 600,000 square km, or half of Tibet's total.

There are over 1,000 kinds of plants with medicinal properties. They include some 400 kinds medicinal herbs commonly used in the traditional Chinese medicine, and some 300 kinds used to make Tibetan medicine with special curative effect. Major ones include tuber of elevated gastrodiae, safflower, bulb of fritillary, pseudo-ginseng, rhubarb, root of hairy asiabell, large-leaved gentian, root of red-rooted salvia, glossy ganoderma and reticulate millettia. These medicinal herbs are so high in production that, after satisfying the needs of the Tibetan-inhabited areas, there is still a surplus to be exported to other parts of China. Some are even sold overseas.

In addition to the aforementioned wild plant resources, the forests hold many kinds of fungus. Of the 200-plus fungi, many are edible, including some kinds of mushrooms, Auricularia auriculajudae and tremella. Tibet also produces precious medicinal fungus including glossy ganoderma, Chinese caterpillar fungus, fuling (Poris cocos), and stone-like omphalia.

The major grain crops in Tibet include qingke barley and wheat. The main bean plants include broad bean and pea. Rapeseed is the major oil bearing crop. The subtropical areas in southeast Tibet produce such grain and cash crops as rice, corn, buckwheat, Chinese sorghum, peanut, and sesame seeds. In the past 10-odd years, the region has introduced green-house technology, enabling a variety of vegetables to be grown on this highland. Such vegetables include turnip, cabbage, potato, carrot, bokchoi, celery, garlic, spinach, cauliflower, Chinese chives, kidney bean, asparagus lettuce, pumpkin and cucumber. Southeast Tibet also produces apple, pear, peach, banana, orange, grape and some other kinds of fruit. Recent years saw success in growing water melons in Lhasa and Xigaze.

Wild Animals

Tibet boasts 142 species of mammals, 488 species of birds, 56 species of reptiles, 45 species of amphibians and 68 species of fish. There are 799 species of wild vertebrates in the region. Among them 123 species are under key state protection, accounting for one-third of the national total under key protection. They include tiger, leopard, monkey, kiang, wild yak, red deer, white-lipped deer, antelope, lynx, musk deer, lesser panda, otter, Tibetan eared pheasant, cranes and python. Forty-five wild vertebrates including Yunnan rhesus monkey, Benglese tiger, snow leopard, kiang, wild yak, takin, white-lipped deer, red-spotted antelope, black-necked crane and red-chest tragopan are either on the verge of extinction or peculiar to Tibet. Himalayan Tar sheep, an animal under first-class protection, can occasionally be seen in places of Gyirong and Nyalam with an elevation of 3,000-4,000 meters at the foot of the Himalayan Mountains.

Tibet is also home to 2,307 species of terrestrial invertebrates (insects), which belong to 1,160 genuses, 173 families of 20 orders. The Chinese Zoreaptera and Metog Zoreaptera are under key state protection. Tibet is also rich in the varieties of beneficial insects. There are 103 species of bees, most of which are insect pollinators of flower-bearing plants. Nine species of bats and moth in Tibet grow in the brush marshland and alpine marshland some 3,600-4,500 meters above sea level.

Mineral Resources

More than 100 kinds of minerals have so far been discovered in Tibet, of which 36 have proven reserves, with those of 11 kinds ranking among the top five in China. They are chromium, industrial crystal, corundum, high-temperature geotherm, copper, volcanic ash, magnesite, boron, native sulphur, mica and arsenic. Other important minerals having good prospects for development include kaolin, gypsum, peat, crystal graphite, antimony, bolognian stone, gold, silver, molybdenum, pyrite, lead, zinc, cobalt, lithium and sylvine.

Of the minerals with proven reserves, chromium leads the country in its reserves. Chromium iron deposits cover a total area of 2,500 square km. Norbusa Chromite Mine in the Shannan Prefecture has become a development base of chromium iron in the region.

In 1999, a new mineral natural lithium carbonate was first discovered in Chabyer Salt Lake at the elevation of 4,400 meters. The lake is now not only the largest lithium mine in China but also one of the three largest salt lakes in the world. It makes Tibet the No.1 area in the world in terms of prospect lithium reserves.

Energy

Tibet is rich in hydro-, geothermal, solar and wind energy resources.

Hydro-energy. Tibet is especially well endowed with hydroelectric power resources, having approximately 200 million kW of hydraulic energy resources, or about 30 percent of China's total. This puts Tibet the first place in China in terms of hydro-energy resources. Rivers each providing more than 10,000 kW of resources number 365. The majority part of Tibet's hydraulic energy resources is concentrated in southeast Tibet. The main stream of the Yarlung Zangbo River promises 80 million kW of hydraulic energy reserves, which can amount to 90 million kW when added with the reserves in its five major tributaries-the Dogxung Zangbo, Nyang Qu, Lhasa, Nyang and Parlung Zangbo rivers.

Geothermal energy. Tibet is a region with the most dynamic geothermal activities, with more than 1,000 sites found to have prospective geothermal energy reserves. Tibet's geothermal heat discharge adds up to 550,000 kilocalories per second, equivalent to annual heat generation of 2.4 million tons of standard coal. The Yangbajain Geothermal Field in Damxung is currently China's largest high-temperature steam geothermal field. The hot water temperature stands at 93-172 degrees Centigrade. The place now is a well-known scenic spot.

Solar energy. Tibet leads the country in solar energy resources. In most parts of the region, the average annual sunshine stands between 3,100-3,400 hours, averaging nine hours a day. Wind energy. There are two wind belts in Tibet. Their annual wind energy reserves are estimated at 93 billion kwh, ranking the seventh in China. Except east Tibet, all other areas in the region have and can use their affluent wind energy resources. The Northern Tibet Plateau in particular enjoys over 4,000 hours of effective wind velocity annually.

Wind energy. There are two wind belts in Tibet. Their annual wind energy reserves are estimated at 93 billion kwh, ranking the seventh in China. Except east Tibet, all other areas in the region have and can use their affluent wind energy resources. The Northern Tibet Plateau in particular enjoys over 4,000 hours of effective wind velocity annually.